The growth of cable television networks heavily influenced political advertising in the election between incumbent President George H. Bush and Governor Bill Clinton, particularly in reaching new target demographics such as women and young voters.
The election saw yet another, and possibly the biggest, change yet in political advertising—the growth of the Internet. Web-based advertising was easily distributed by both incumbent President George W. This resulted in advertisements which were tailored to target specific audiences for the first time a process known as narrowcasting.
From onward, televised debates have become an important aspect of every presidential election. Televised debates have become an important aspect of every presidential election. The first general election presidential debate was held on September 26, , between Democratic nominee U.
Senator John F. With an estimated 70 million viewers watching, the first Kennedy-Nixon debate demonstrated the impact of this new medium.
During the debate, Nixon looked sickly, underweight and tired. In contrast, Kennedy appeared confident and relaxed. As a result, many of those who watched the debate unfold on television believed that Kennedy had won. For the remaining three debates, Nixon regained his lost weight, wore television makeup and appeared more forceful than his initial appearance.
Televised debates were a major factor again in In the debates, with years of experience in front of a camera as an actor, Reagan came across much better than Carter. This would eventually help to propel Reagan to a landslide victory. It was not until that a second series of televised presidential debates was held during the general election campaign season.
These debates, between Governor Jimmy Carter, the Democratic nominee, and Republican incumbent President Gerald Ford, also demonstrated their dramatic effect. Agenda-setting is somewhat limited within domestic politics. Due to the commercialized context within which they work, media institutions must compete for audience interest and can often not afford to ignore an important issue which another television station, newspaper, or radio station is willing to pick up.
In regards to foreign policy, agenda-setting could take place in areas in which very few Americans have direct experience of the issues at hand. In addition, the U. Coverage of the political campaigns have been less reflective on the issues that matter to voters.
Here are six ways social media has influenced the political landscape — and campaigning activity as a result:. According to polling conducted by the Pew Research Center, compared to , the typical U.
Served as a leading forum for political involvement While rallies, peaceful protests and fundraisers may still be the norm, social media has overtaken them when it comes to generating interest and actions for various causes — especially among young people. Separate polling from Pew found social media users 30 and under have encouraged friends on social media to take action on issues they consider to be meaningful.
Nearly a third of to year-old men have changed their mind about an issue because of what they learned on social networks, according to a Pew survey. Shifted to a smaller share of users producing the highest amount of political content Several polls show that when it comes to political topics, the smallest, most frequent users of social media tend to post and produce the most content in terms of volume.
Apply now. Bernie Sanders and Hillary Clinton Democrats focused their social media strategy on promoting themselves. Social media such as Twitter continues being used by politicians today, and continues to grow more popularity in American politics. Social media has been used in political campaigns ranging from small local elections to larger-scale presidential elections. According to Wael Ghonim, social media can reinforce pre-existing beliefs rather than promote new ones.
While social media can be used to raise donations, several candidates focused on using it to promote their own campaign. Politicians cannot control the conversation in social media. Users with the most influence over social media fall into three different categories: users who disseminate knowledge, those who engage other people, and those who lead conversations. These three types of users are the ones who others tend to follow and listen to through social media. Therefore, for political campaigns to truly reach as many people as possible, political groups first need to get those three users talking about their campaigns on social media.
People worry that too much use of social media might cause less policy making in government. Instead of doing things such as making new laws, presidents might focys too much attention on social media to try to win over more supporters. During campaign, by using social media and mobilizing the general public online, Obama was able to raise awareness and financial support of his campaign.
Obama used over 15 social networking sites. Roosevelt and John F. Obama also follows , accounts, and has posted 15, tweets. Well into , it was following the most people of any account on the network and was the third to achieve ten million followers. It is one of only two accounts in the world to be in the top ten in both followers and followees Twitter friends.
As of June 12, , the White House account is also among the two-hundred most followed with nearly three million followers. On May 18, , Obama sent his first tweet from the first Twitter account dedicated exclusively to the U. Obama has used Twitter to promote legislation and support for his policies. He has been the subject of various controversies on Twitter. Obama is also the subject of various debates on Twitter.
He had also used his account to respond to the public regarding the economy and employment. The account held the record for following the most people. His account became the third account to reach 10 million followers in September Account usage history BarackObama was launched on March 5, at It is his official account, although he also tweeted through WhiteHouse which is usually used by the presidential administration, while BarackObama was for his election campaign staff.
Tweets from the President are signed -bo. The event was held in the East Room of the White House and was streamed online. Only written questions on the site about the economy and jobs were accepted for oral response by Obama.
Dorsey said afterwards that Twitter received over , AskObama-hashtagged tweets. Boehner was quite active with his questions from the outset. Some in the media proposed May 24, , as the date when Obama became the first President to respond to questions on Twitter. Later in , Obama used Twitter again to try to encourage the people to voice their opinion on legislation when he was attempting to pass the American Jobs Act.
Jagadeesh Nellore AP ,India. Voters are gravitating from traditional television and print sources and moving to the Internet for presidential campaign news Owen and Davis, Rather than abandoning traditional sources entirely, many people are adding Internet media as a new source of information during midterm elections Smith, Local television news, in particular, remains important for midterm election voters Owen, b.
Young people, however, are inclined to use online sources to the exclusion of television and print newspapers in both types of campaigns. Audience use of campaign media is a research focus that raises a key question: What motivates voters to use new election media? New media use involves experiences that are more active and goal-directed than those associated with traditional media. These include problem solving, persuading others, relationship maintenance, status seeking, personal insight, and time consumption.
Scholars have also identified uses and gratifications that are linked to specific aspects of new election media use Johnson and Kaye, Gratifications are derived from participating in virtual communities, as by establishing a peer identity LaRose and Eastin, The use of social media fulfills needs including enhancing social connectedness, self-expression, sharing problems, sociability, relationship maintenance, and self-actualization Quan-Haase and Young, ; Shao, Scholars have also examined the influence of the use of new election media on the development of political attitudes and orientations, such as efficacy and trust Johnson, Braima, and Sothirajah, ; Kenski and Stroud, , Wang, ; Zhang, Johnson, Seltzer, and Bichard, Some studies have found a positive connection between exposure to online media and higher levels of electoral engagement and turnout Gueorguieva, ; Gulati and Williams, ; Johnson and Kaye, ; Tolbert and Mcneal, ; Wang, ; Bond et al.
However, the effects may not be overwhelming Boulianne, The online environment may be most relevant for people who are already predisposed toward political engagement Park and Perry, , The use of social media does not necessarily increase electoral participation, although it has a positive influence on civic engagement, such as community volunteerism Baumgartner and Morris, ; Zhang, Johnson, Seltzer, and Bichard, Young voters, those under age 30, came of political age during the Internet era.
Unlike older citizens, who established their campaign media habits in the print and television age, this generation has embraced the election online from the outset. A growing body of literature focuses on the ways in which young voters are using new election media and their effects. Studies indicate that this demographic group is out front in terms of using new media for accessing information Lupia and Philpot, ; Shah, McLeod, and Yoon, ; indeed, many ignore traditional print and broadcast media and rely p.
Research to date has established useful baselines for understanding new media and elections. However, many of the questions that guided early work remain contested or only partially addressed. Much of the existing scholarship has employed well-worn theoretical frameworks that are not entirely appropriate for the new media age and have relied on orthodox methodological approaches, such as survey research and content analysis.
Creative research methodologies such as the use of time gliders to catalogue the emergence and development of new campaign media should be employed, as well as network analysis that captures the dynamics of social media engagement. Political scientists and communication researchers should collaborate with computer science and technology scholars.
Since the new media environment is changeable, and tracking developments is difficult, this is a challenging proposition. New media applications are introduced and modified, and they sometimes disappear quickly. Candidates, parties, media organizations, and average citizens experiment with new media and introduce new scenarios in virtually every campaign. Theoretical frameworks should be tested for their capacity to accommodate the unique characteristics of new media, with their inherent multipath interactivity, flexibility, unpredictability, and opportunities for more active engagement.
Theories should elucidate the challenges new media present to entrenched media and political hierarchies. They also should address the manner in which new media are influencing campaign logistics and strategies. To address the effects of complex audience dynamics, scholars need to develop analytical categories beyond demographics and basic political orientations.
Much excitement has been generated by the prospect of using new media for electoral engagement, but the substance and significance of these forms of activation are barely understood.
Studies might more deeply assess whether or not this engagement constitutes meaningful and effective political activation. Standard methodological approaches should be updated for the new media age or used in conjunction with cutting edge methods. Some of the very same tools that are employed by users of digital media can be used by scholars to collect and analyze data.
Electronic sources—such as blogs, discussion forums, and email—can function as archives of material that can be automatically searched, retrieved, extracted, and examined using digital p.
Big data can be employed to examine voter orientations and preferences, with the caveat that their objectivity, reliability, and accuracy are suspect. Research strategies might blend big data analysis and traditional survey research Metaxas and Mustafaraj, ; Groves, Audience analysis also can benefit from fresh methodological approaches.
People do not consume news online in the same linear fashion that they read the morning newspaper. Instead, they explore news offerings by following a series of links to particular content. Web crawler techniques can be used to examine online election communities. Digital utilities, such as online timeline creators, visually chart the development of new election media and serve as research tools Owen, a. Journals that can handle digital scholarship using multimedia graphics, and interactive exhibits are being developed.
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